What Does the Song Over and Over Again Mean

Equally it is clear from the title of the chapter, the stylistic use of phonemes and their graphical representation volition exist viewed here. Dealing with various cases of phonemic and graphemic foregrounding we should not forget the unilateral nature of a phoneme: this language unit helps to differentiate meaningful lexemes but has no pregnant of its own. Cf.: while unable to speak about the semantics of [ou], [ju:], we admit

their sense-differentiating significance in "sew" [sou] шить and "sew" [sju:] спускать воду; or [au], [ou] in "bow" бант, поклон etc.

Even so, devoid of denotational or connotational meaning a phoneme, according to contempo studies,* has a strong associative and sound-instrumenting power. Well-known are numerous cases of onomatopoeia - the use of words whose sounds imitate those of the signified object or action, such every bit "hiss", "bowwow", "murmur", "crash-land", "mumble", "sizzle" and many more.

Imitating the sounds of nature, man, inanimate objects, the acoustic grade of the word foregrounds the latter, inevitably emphasizing its meaning as well. Thus the phonemic construction of the discussion proves to be important for the creation of expressive and emotive connotations. A message, containing an onomat-opoeic discussion is not limited to transmitting the logical informa-tion only, but besides supplies the brilliant portrayal of the situation described.

Poetry abounds in some specific types of audio-instrument-ing, the leading role belonging to alliteration - the repetition of consonants, normally in the starting time of words, and asson-ance - the repetition of similar vowels, usually in stressed syllables. They both may produce the effect of euphony (a sense of ease and comfort in pronouncing or hearing) or cacophony (a sense of strain and discomfort in pronouncing or hearing). As an example of the first may serve the famous lines of E. A. Poe:

...silken sad uncertain

rustling of each purple curtain...

An example of the second is provided past the unspeakable combination of sounds found in R. Browning:

Nor soul helps flesh now more than flesh helps soul.

To create boosted data in a prose soapbox audio-instrumenting is seldom used. In gimmicky advertizing, mass media and, in a higher place all, artistic prose sound is foregrounded mainly through the change of its accepted graphical repre-sentation. This intentional violation of the graphical shape of a discussion (or word combination) used to reflect its pronunciation is called graphon.

* See, e.g. Воронин С. В. Основы фоносемантики. Л., 1982, where the author lays foundations for a new linguistic subject area - phonosemantics, claiming symbolic relevance of sound for naming objects.

Graphons, indicating irregularities or carelessness of pronunciation were occasionally introduced into English novels and journalism every bit early equally the beginning of the eighteenth century and since then have acquired an always growing frequency of usage, popularity among writers, journalists, advertizers, and a continuously widening scope of functions. Graphon proved to be an extremely concise but effective means of supplying information about the speaker's origin, social and educational groundwork, concrete or emotional condition, etc. So, when the famous Thackeray's grapheme-butler Yellowplush - impresses his listeners with the learned words pronouncing them every bit "sellybrated" (celebrated), "benny-violent" (benevolent), "illygitmit" (illegitimate), "jewinile" (juvenile), or when the no less famous Mr. Babbitt uses "pee-rading" (parading), "Eytalians" (Italians), "peepul" (people)-the reader obtains not only the vivid prototype and the social, cultural, educational characteristics of the personages, but likewise both Thackeray's and S. Lewis' sarcastic mental attitude to them.

On the other hand, "The b-b-b-b-bas-tud-he seen me c-c-c-c-com-ing" in R. P. Warren's Saccharide Boy's speech communication or "You don't mean to thay that thith ith your firth time" (D.C.) show the concrete defects of the speakers - the stumbling of one and the lisping of the other.

Graphon, thus individualizing thecharacter's speech, adds to his plausibility, vividness, memorability. At the same fourth dimension, graphon is very good at conveying the atmosphere of authentic live advice, of the informality of the speech act. Some amalgamated forms, which are the issue of stiff assimilation, became cliches in gimmicky prose dialogue: "gimme" (give me), "lemme" (allow me), "gonna" (going to), "gotta" (got to), "coupla" (couple of), "mighta" (might accept), "willya" (will you), etc.

This flavour of informality and actuality brought graphon

popularity with advertizers. Big and pocket-sized eating places invite customers to nourish their "Pik-kwik shop", or "The Donut (doughnut) Place", or the "Rite Bread Shop", or the "Wok-in Fast Food Restaurant", etc. The same is true near newspaper, poster and TV advertizing: "Sooper Class Model" cars, "Knee-hi" socks, "Rite Aid" medicines. A recently published book on Cockney was entitled by the authors "The Muvver Natural language",* on back flaps of large freight-cars one tin can read "Page me", etc. Graphical changes may reflect not only the peculiarities

* Baltrop, R., Wolveridge, J. The Muvver Tongue. London, 1980.

of pronunciation, but are also used to convey the intensity of the stress, emphasizing and thus foregrounding the stressed words. To such purely graphical means, not involving the viola-tions, we should refer all changes of the type (italics, capi-talization), spacing of graphemes (hyphenation, multiplication) and of lines. The latter was widely exercised in Russian poetry by V. Mayakovsky, famous for his "steps" in verse lines, or A. Voznesensky. In English the well-nigh often referred to "graphic-al imagist" was E. Eastward. Cummings.

Co-ordinate to the frequency of usage, variability of functions, the first place among graphical ways of foregrounding is occupied by italics. As well italicizing words to add to their logical or emotive significance, separate syllables and morphemes may also be emphasized by italics (which is highly characteristic of D. Salinger or T. Capote). Intensity of spoken communication (often in commands) is transmitted through the multiplication of a grapheme or capitalization of the discussion, as in Babbitt'south shriek "Аlllll aboarrrrrd", or in the desperate appeal in A. Huxley'south Brave New World-"Help.Help. Assist." Hyphena-tion of a discussion suggests the rhymed or clipped way in which information technology is uttered as in the humiliating comment from Fl. O'Connor'due south story-"grinning like a chim-pan-zee".

Summing up the informational options of the graphical system of a word (a line, a discourse), one sees their varied application for re-creating the individual and social peculiarities of the speaker, the atmosphere of the communi-cation human action-all aimed at revealing and emphasizing the author'southward viewpoint.

Assignments for Self-Control

1. What is audio-instrumenting?

2. What cases of audio-instrumenting do you lot know?

3. What is graphon?

four. What types and functions of graphon do you know?

5. What is achieved by the graphical changes of writing-
its blazon, the spacing of graphemes and lines?

six. Which phono-graphical means are predominantly used in
prose and which ones in poetry?

EXERCISES

I. Indicate the causes and effects of the following cases of ingemination, assonance and onomatopoeia:

ane. Streaked past a quarter moon, the Mediterranean shushed gently into the embankment. (I. Sh.)

2. He swallowed the hint with a gulp and a gasp and a grin.
(R. K.)

three. His wife was shrill, languid, handsome and horrible.
(Sc. F.)

4. The fair breeze blew, the white foam flew,
The furrow followed gratis. (Due south. C.)

5. The Italian trio tut-tutted their tongues at me. (T. C.)

6. You, Jean, long, lanky board of a lousy bastard! (O'C.)

7. To sit down in solemn silence in a boring dark dock,
In a pestilential prison, with a life-long lock,
Awaiting the sensation of a brusk, sharp shock

From a cheap and chippy chopper on a big black block. (Due west. C.)

8. They all lounged, and loitered, and slunk about, with every bit
little spirit or purpose as the beasts in a menagerie. (D.)

nine. "Luscious, languid and lustful, isn't she?"

"Those are not the correct epithets. She is-ог rather was surly, lustrous and sadistic." (E. W.)

ten. Then, with an enormous, shattering rumble, sludge-
puff, sludge-puff, the train came into the station. (A. Due south.)

xi. "Sh-sh."

"Simply I am whispering." This continual shushing an-noyed him. (A. H.)

12. Twinkle, twinkle, picayune star,
How I wonder what you are.
Upwardly higher up the world and then loftier,

Like a diamond in the sky. (Ch. R.)

13. Dreadful young creatures-squealing and squawking. (C.)

14. The quick crackling of dry woods aflame cutting through the night. (St. H.)

fifteen. Here the rain did not fall. Information technology was stopped loftier above by that roof of green shingles. From there information technology dripped downward slowly, leaf to leaf, or ran down the stems and branches. Despite the heaviness of the downpour which now purred loudly in their ears from but outside, here in that location was only a low rustle of slow occasional dripping. (J.)

II. Indicate the kind of additional information well-nigh the speaker supplied by graphon:

1. "Hey," he said, inbound the library. "Where's the center section?"

"The what?"

He had the thickest sort of southern Negro dialect and the but word that came clear to me was the one that sounded like heart.

"How do y'all spell it," I said.

"Heart, Man, pictures. Drawing books. Where you got them?"

"You mean art books? Reproductions?" He took my polysyllabic word for information technology. "Yea, they's them." (Ph. R.)

ii. "It don't take no nerve to do somepin when there ain't
cipher else you can practice. Nosotros own't gonna die out. People is
goin' on-changin' a footling may be-but goin' right on." (J. St.)

three. "And remember, Mon-sewer O'Hayer says you got to
straighten upward this mess sometime today." (J.)

4. "I even heard they demanded sexual liberty. Yes, sir,
Sex-You-All freedom." (J. K.)

five. "Ye've a duty to the public don'tcher know that, a duty
to the nifty English language public?" said George reproachfully.

"Hither, lemme handle this, kiddar," said Tiger. "Gorra maintain strength, you," said George. "Ah'm fightin' fit," said Tiger. (S. Ch.)

6. "Oh, that's information technology, is it?" said Sam. "I was afeerd, from
his manner, that he might ha' forgotten to take pepper with
that 'ere last cowcumber he et. Set down, sir, ve make no
extra accuse for the settin' down, equally the rex remarked when
he blowed up his ministers." (D.)

7. "Well, I dunno. I'll show you summat." (St. B.)

8. "De old Foolosopher, like Hickey calls yarn, ain't
yuh?" (O'North.)

9. "I had a autobus with a footling seat in fwont with an iwon
wail for the dwiver." (D.)*

ten. "The Count," explained the German officer, "expegs
you chentlemen at eight-dirty." (С. Н.)

11. Said Kipps one mean solar day, "As'e-I should say, ah, has'e...
Ye know, I got a lot of difficulty with them ii words, which
is which."

"Well, 'as' is a conjunction, and 'has' is a verb." "I know," said Kipps, "but when is 'has' a conjunction, and when is 'as' a verb?" (H. Due west.)

12. Wilson was a little hurt. "Listen, boy," he told him.
"Ah may not exist able to read eve'thin' so good, just they ain't
a affair Ah can't practice if Ah set mah mind to information technology." (Northward. Grand.)

* The afflicted manner of Lord Muttonhead's pronunciation was well preserved in the Russian translation of the Pickwick Papers: «...с гешеткой впегеди для кучега».

3. Remember of the causes originating graphon (young age, a physical defect
of speech, lack of educational activity, the influence of dialectal norms, affectation,
intoxication, carelessness in speech communication, etc.):

1. He began to return the famous tune "I lost my heart
in an English garden, Just where the roses of England grow"
with much feeling:

"Ah-ee last mah-ee hawrt een ahn Angleesh gawrden, Jost whahr thah rawzaz ahv Angland graw." (H. C.)

2. She mimicked a lisp: "I don't weally know wevver I'chiliad
a good girl. The last matter he'll do would exist to be mixed with
a howwid adult female." (J. Br.)

iii. "All the village dogs are no-'count mongrels, Papa
says. Fish-gut eaters and no class a-tall; this hither dog, he
got insteek." (К. К.)

4. "My daddy's coming tomorrow on a nairplane." (S.)

5. After a hum a beautiful Negress sings "Without a song,
the dahay would nehever end." (U.)

6. "Oh, well, so, yous just trot over to the tabular array and
make your fiddling mommy a gweat big dwink." (East. A.)

7. "I allus recollect me man sayin' to me when I passed
me scholarship—'You lot intermission ane o'my winders an' I'll skin ye
live'." (St. B.)

8. He spoke with the flat ugly "a" and withered "r" of
Boston Irish gaelic, and Levi looked up at him and mimicked "All
right, I'll give the caaads a interruption and staaat playing." (Northward. M.)

ix. "Whereja get all these pictures?" he said. "Meetcha at
the corner. Wuddaya retrieve she's doing out there?" (S.)

x. "Lookat him go. D'javer run across him walk abode from schoolhouse?
You're French Canadian, aintcha?" (J. K.)

Four. State the role of graphon in captions, posters, advertisements,
etc. repeatedly used in American press, Television set, roadside advertizing:

i. Weather condition forecast for today: Hi 59, Lo 32, Air current lite.

two. We recommend a Sixty-seconds meal-Steak-Umm.

3. Choose the plane with "Finah Than Dinah" on its side.

4. Best jeans for this Jeaneration.

5. Follow our advice: Drinka Pinta Milka Day.

6. Terry's Flooring Fashions: We make 'em-you walk on 'em.

7. Our offer is S 15.00 per WK.

viii. Thanx for the purchase.

ix. Ev'ybody uses our wunnerful Rackfeed Drills.

Five. Analyse the following extract from Artemus Ward:*

"Sit down, my fren'; sed the man in blackness close; "yu mis

komprehend me. I meen that the perlitercal ellermunts are orecast with black klouds, 4 boden a friteful tempest."

"Wall," replide I, "in regard to perlittercal ellerfunts i don't know as how merely what they is as expert as enny other kind of ellerfunts. But i maik bold to say thay is all a ornery set up and unpleasant to hav round. They air powerful hevy eaters and take up a right smart chans of room."

The man in black close rusht up to me and sed, "How dair yu insult my neece, yu horey heded vagabone? Yu base of operations exhibbiter of low wax figgers - you woolf in sheep's close," and sow 4th.

Half-dozen. Country the functions and the type of the following graphical expressive means:

1. Piglet, sitting in the running Kanga's pocket, substi-
tuting the kidnapped Roo, thinks:

this shall take

"If is I never to

flying really it." (1000.)

2. Kiddies and grown-ups too-oo-oo

We haven't enough to do-oo-oo. (R. G.)

3. "Hey," he said "is it a goddamn cardroom? or a latrine?
Attensh—HUT! Da-ress right! DHRESS! (J.)

4. "When Volition'south ma was down here keeping house for him-
she used to run in to see me, existent ofttimes." (Southward. L.)

v. He missed our father very much. He was south-i-a-i-northward in
North Africa. (South.)

6. His voice began on a medium key, and climbed steadily
up till information technology reached a certain point, where it diameter with strong
emphasis upon the topmost word, and and so plunged down every bit if
from a spring board:

beds

flowery

on

skies

the

to

carried

be

I

Shall of ease,

* Artemus Ward is the pseudonym of C. F. Browne (1834-67), well known for his tape of the imaginary adventures of an itinerant half-literate showman.

Claret

throu'

sailed

and

prize

the

toe

fought

others

Whilst у seas? (K. T.)

7. "We'll teach the children to await at things. Don't let
the globe pass you by, I shall tell them. For the sun, I shall
say, open your eyes for that laaaarge sun " (A. W.)

viii. "Now mind, Ed, cease that, now. I'm desperate. I am
desperate, Ed, do y'all hear?" (Dr.)

9. "Adieu you, old man, grey. I compassion you, and I de-spise
you." (D.)

10. "ALL our troubles are over, onetime girl," he said fondly.
"We tin can put a flake by now for a rainy mean solar day." (S. Thousand.)

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